A Review of Body Image Influences on Menã¢â‚¬â„¢s Fitness Goals and Supplement Use
Introduction
Disturbances in body representation have been identified as the crux of many debilitating psychiatric disorders, such as trunk dysmorphic disorder (1), torso integrity identity disorder (2), somatoparaphrenia (3), and asomatognosia (four). It has likewise been proposed as a core psychopathology of eating disorders [east.1000., (4–nine)]—especially in anorexia and bulimia nervosa. Heightened body dissatisfaction has been interpreted every bit a predisposition indicator in subclinical populations. Individuals with body prototype concerns are reportedly more than vulnerable to developing eating and dieting pathologies (10–13). As notwithstanding, withal, mechanisms of change in body representation are withal poorly understood, limiting machinery-oriented interventions for prevention and handling of disturbed body representation.
Previous literature has suggested that regular physical activity has beneficial effects on thephysical health of the body, too as a significant touch on the level of satisfaction with whichthe body is perceived [due east.k., (14–sixteen)]. This is surprising, insofar as cross-exclusive studies in individuals withhigh levels of physical activeness suggest decreased rather than increased body satisfaction (17). Still, it is important to annotation that there has been little disquisitional appraisal of the existing studies. Previous systematic reviews and meta-analyses on the topic of physical activity and its potential interactions with body satisfaction have been conducted from an outcome-centric perspective [east.g., (xiv, 15, 18–20)]—focusing on evaluating the effectiveness of concrete activity as an intervention for the improvement of individuals' trunk satisfaction—with an emphasis on the affective and cognitive aspects (i.eastward., torso image). Nevertheless, the question of which potential mechanisms might exist responsible for the credible shift in torso paradigm after the introduction of concrete activity has not been inadequately addressed.
Despite the lack of a unified consensus on its exact nature, the term trunk paradigm has been widelyused in inquiry across psychology, neuroscience, and psychiatry. Body paradigm can roughly becharacterised as the witting, predominantly visual, mental representation of i'south ain body,which in plow provides a footing upon which perceptual, cognitive, and affective attitudes toward thebody are assigned (21, 22). However, information technology is important to notation that the electric current literature largely concurson the utilize of the term torso image as a measure of body satisfaction—in that trunk prototype as anoutcome measure out is interpreted as the degree with which individuals are satisfied with diverse aspects of themselves that is influenced by the visual attribute of their body (due east.g., appraisement of body shape information). In this review, we therefore adopt the term body representation when referring to the broad range of mental representations of one's own trunk, whereas body epitome only refers to cognitive-affective appraisement of the body. The fact that body prototype investigations in health research has so far been conducted from an virtually exclusively perceptual-affective perspective is worth discussing.
Longo (23) argued that higher level representations of thebody are unlikely to emerge from abstract noesis solitary. Rather, they are constructed through theinterplay of multiple distinct body representations. Not only do individuals have immediateknowledge of their trunk from within (i.e., bodily sensation through interoception), they are alsoable to considerately reverberate on their own body from an external perspective, in the same fashion thatexternal objects are cognitively assessed (with regards to their shape, size, location, aesthetics, et cetera). Relying on neuroscientific evidence, Longo's framework of body perception consists of multiple distinct body representations that are informed by different sensory modalities and can be arranged along 2 orthogonal axes: explicit vs. implicit & perceptual vs. conceptual. However, virtually empirical information apropos body epitome has been based on self-report or visual body size judgments, which effectively leads to the underrepresentation of other somatically driven/sensory inputs when because the potential mechanism underlying the concept of body prototype (24). Although these subcomponents of torso representation have been demonstrated to have distinct underpinning neural networks [see (25) for review], the mechanisms responsible for the evolution and regulation of these subcomponents are still very much unexplored (east.g., the idea that trunk satisfaction, or the lack thereof, could be socially and/or somatically driven—or the product of their interactions). As such, it is non at all articulate why the torso epitome should remain the sole focal point when investigating how individuals mentally correspond their own body, and the potential distortions therein.
In this systematic review, we aim to synthesise existing literature investigating longitudinal interaction between concrete activeness and body image. Our purpose is to synthesise the empirical evidence from previous studies with a focus on effects, broader potential, and eventual impact mechanisms of PI on body representation. Specifically, our research questions were:
i. Are there systematic effects of PI on body representation?
ii. Are previous studies informative with regard to prevention or treatment of sub-clinical or clinically relevant trunk prototype disturbance?
3. Are in that location specific mechanisms of how long-term engagement in structured PI that influence thedynamics of individuals' body representations?
Method
The systematic review process was conducted according to the PRISMA statement (26). Methods of analysis and inclusion criteria were specified in accelerate and documented in a protocol.
Literature Search
Studies were identified via searching the following electronic databases: PubMed, Spider web of Science and SPORTDiscus. The search was weekly updated until January 2020.
The specific search terms are as follows: ("body image" OR "torso representation" OR "body dissatisfaction" OR "torso satisfaction" OR "body prototype disturbance") AND ("physical activity" OR "physical exercise" OR "practise intervention" OR "endurance training" OR "exercise training" OR "practice intervention" OR "aerobic do" OR "aerobic preparation" OR "anaerobic do" OR "anaerobic training" OR "motor activity" OR "resistance grooming" OR "resistance exercise" OR "strength training" OR "weight training" OR "weightlifting" OR "cardio training" OR "cardio" OR "athletic sports" OR "practice program" OR "fitness preparation" OR "cardiovascular training" OR "interval training" OR "intermittent training" OR "interval practice" OR "intermittent practice" OR "sprint training" OR "dart exercise" OR "loftier intensity interval training" OR "high intensity interval exercise" OR "moderate intensity preparation" OR "moderate intensity exercise" OR "exercise/psychology" OR "exercise therapy/methods" OR "resistance training/methods").
Additionally, reference lists of included articles were hand searched.
Eligibility Criteria and Written report Choice
Each step of the eligibility assessment was performed independently by 2 reviewers according to the PICOS criteria (27). But manufactures in English were considered.
Studies had to fulfil the following criteria:
Population: a sample of developed participants,
Intervention: include a longitudinal physical activity intervention (PI; no lifestyle counselling; specific targeting of body image/body representation not compulsory),
Comparison/Control: include a validated measure of body image/body representation, a control group was not required,
Consequence: at least 1 pre & postal service measurement of a validated cocky-report or experimental body image/body representation measure, and
Study Type: published as a peer-reviewed original commodity.
Exclusion criteria were equally follows:
i. samples younger than 18 years sometime, and
ii. no inference statistics performed.
The offset author (DS) applied the search terms to three databases, extracted the search results and removed duplicates. DS and LW screened titles to identify relevant records. Abstracts and full texts of the identified records were subsequently screened by DS and SB. All studies included in the qualitative synthesis were rated according to the eligibility criteria by DS and SB. Interrater reliability between DS and LW for title screening was practiced (κ = 0.61; 94.ii% agreement). Articles were included in the full-text screening if one reviewer rated information technology as a potential match. Interrater reliability betwixt DS and SB for the subsequent steps was very good (κ = ane.0 for abstract screening; κ = 0.94 for total-text screening). Disagreements between the reviewers were solved past discussion and, when in doubt, articles were included. DS extracted relevant information from the included studies (i.due east., sample characteristics, PI types and dosage, measure of fitness level, measures of body composition, measures of torso image/body representation, and results).
Adventure of Bias in Individual Studies
To assess the chance of bias in private studies, DS and SB conducted a quality rating. The Qualitative Assessment Tool for Quantitative Studies by the Effective Public Health Practise Project (28, 29) is recommended by the Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions to exist used for assessing whatsoever quantitative report design (30) and was judged a suitable tool for systematic reviews of effectiveness (31). The tool consists of component ratings for the following categories: option bias, written report pattern, confounders, blinding, data collection methods, and withdrawals and dropouts. Components were rated according to the accompanying dictionary. Studies received ratings of either "potent", "moderate", or "weak" for each category. A global rating was assigned at the end of the process via the summarisation of the number of categories rated as "weak". Disagreements between the reviewers were solved past discussion.
Results
Report Selection
The searches yielded a total of 3,318 results. Duplicates were discarded (n = 602), leaving 2,716 records for championship and abstract screening. During this process, two,659 studies were discarded, and the remaining 57 studies were identified for total-text analysis. Afterwards, 34 studies were included in the systematic review. For the PRISMA menstruum nautical chart, see Figure one.
Effigy 1 PRISMA flowchart for study pick.
Written report Quality
The overall report quality within the electric current review showed a slight majority for "weak" (55.88%; northward = nineteen), followed by "moderate" (41.17%; north = 14). Only 1 study (2.94%) included in the review qualified for the global "potent" rating. The detailed components ratings are included in Tabular array 1.
Table one Overview on principal characteristics and findings of included studies.
Notably, included studies only received weak (n = 26) and moderate (due north = 8) ratings for the choice bias category. The main reason for depreciation was the recruitment in sports classes or from customs samples; thus producing a selection bias favouring highly motivated, sports-oriented participants. In the same vein, about studies qualified for moderate rating in the study design category (north = 27). This is due to the lack of randomisation in the choice as well as grouping allotment process, as participants often conducted the PI of their pick. This limits explanatory ability regarding general recommendations of effective types of training. To summarise, there is a possibility for risk of bias in the studies included in the current review.
Written report Characteristics
The report characteristics of included studies are detailed in Table 1. All studies employed a longitudinal pattern, equally defined by the inclusion criteria. Of the total 34, vi studies were described every bit quasi-experimental. Twenty-iii studies included control groups in their experimental design, while the remaining 11 did not. Inside the 23 controlled studies, 18 studies included "no intervention" comparison groups, while the remaining 5 studies included participants who performed low to moderate practice as controls. Eight studies included clinical and/or sub-clinical groups. The remaining 26 studies had healthy samples. Eleven studies aimed to compare different types of PIs and their affect on trunk image/body representation of participants. Well-nigh studies (due north = 27) did not have a randomised participant pick and/or group resource allotment procedure.
Physical Activeness Interventions
The most commonly investigated types of PI were weight/strength training (north = 14), as well as aerobics/cardiovascular training (n = 13). Three studies implemented the combination of both types as a atypical intervention. Dancing (n = 3) was also investigated. Other PIs included walking, running, swimming, cycling, pilates, hydrogymnastics, yoga, fascial fettle, and functional training. The hateful length of time for the implementation of the PI was 13.29 (SD = 8.45) weeks, with the maximum of 52 weeks (1 yr) and the minimum of ii weeks. The median for PI duration was 12 weeks.
VO2max was used as a mensurate of fitness in ix studies. Eleven studies conducted strength tests equally a marker of fettle level (i.e., variations of maximum repetition test). Heartrate was too measured as a marker of fitness level (n = 4). Twelve studies did non written report any measure of physical fitness.
Result Measures
Studies were homogeneous in terms of the operationalisation of body epitome/trunk representation measures. Almost all studies exclusively implemented validated questionnaires assessing torso image. Simply 3 studies additionally implemented more visual-oriented measures (i.e., Stunkard Scale of Silhouette, Figure Rating Scale)—though nevertheless still affective/subjective in nature. No study used experimental assessments of body representation (e.thousand., depictive/metric body size and visual estimation tasks). Equally such, the domains of visual, tactile and affordance perception of trunk representation were not at all investigated.
The most ordinarily employed scales were MBSRQ (Multidimensional Trunk Self-Relations Questionnaire; (66) and PSPP (Concrete Cocky-Perception Contour; (67) at 23.53% (northward = viii) each. The Trunk Cathexis Scale was also frequently implemented in before studies (northward = 7; 20.59%; (68).
Systematic Furnishings of PI on Body Representation
PI was considered effective if significant comeback in trunk representation measures was reported at post-exam among the intervention group, relative to the control grouping. The overall results are every bit follows: v studies (14.71%) observed no pregnant improvement in both control and PI groups across all body epitome measures; 3 studies (eight.82%) observed significant improvement in both control and PI groups across all torso image measures; 10 studies (29.41%) reported significant improvement in PI grouping across all trunk paradigm measures; sixteen studies (47.06%) reported partial significance effect in PI groups (i.e., non all comeback in scores measured in the subscales of the implemented questionnaires reached significance).
Nonetheless, due to the depression number of clinical and sub-clinical studies (n = 8) included in this systematic review, nosotros cannot reliably synthesise significant evidence with regard to utilising long-term PI (structured or otherwise) every bit a treatment measure for clinically relevant groups.
Mechanisms Underpinning the Interplay Betwixt PI and Body Representation
All studies included neither explicitly addressed/proposed a form of a mechanistic coaction between PI and trunk representation, nor provided evidence to support one. As such, the question of which potential mechanisms might be responsible for the apparent shift in body representation after the introduction of concrete activeness remain inadequately addressed.
Discussion
In this systematic review, nosotros synthesised the empirical findings from longitudinal intervention studies on effects of structured PI on body representation. Overall, the studies advise that the implementation of structured PI is associated with improved body image. Effects on other torso representations were not investigated. To our knowledge, this review is the commencement to demonstrate such an effect in longitudinal settings. The effectiveness of these interventions seems promising for future inquiry and possible development of prevention interventions. However, we debate that due to the quality of existing studies, further inquiry is highly necessary to investigate whether the positive effects of PI can be generalised across salubrious (active or sedentary), sub-clinical every bit well every bit clinical populations, and to capture a more complete sense of torso representations that allows for exploring potential mechanisms of modify.
Based on the evidence available, PI tin can be cautiously regarded as a potentially effective option regarding trunk image related outcomes. Notably, the studies included in the review examined predominantly volunteer groups (i.due east., people who were generally open to the idea of engaging in physical activeness), even if they were previously sedentary. Information technology remains unclear whether positive furnishings of PI would also generalise to the voluntarily sedentary population who are physical-activeness-reluctant. From a clinical perspective, these groups would be very relevant, since they are at higher risk for cardiovascular diseases and obesity. Thus, from the current studies, information technology remains unclear whether PI can exist recommended every bit a full general handling to people suffering from poor body image.
Based on our systematic review, it would not be responsible to simply conclude that PI might be a promising treatment choice for sub-clinical and/or clinical populations whose cadre psychopathology is centred around body dissatisfaction and distorted representation of one's own trunk. Despite the fact that a general comeback in measures of body representations tin can be observed, the percentage of clinical and sub-clinical studies included within the systematic review is as well low to describe such a determination (23.53%). Additionally, there is no clear evidence regarding an boosted or interactive effect of PI when implemented in conjunction with established treatments for clinical populations. More importantly, a previous meta-analytic review of stand-alone interventions to better trunk image by Alleva and colleague (eighteen) has provided evidence which cautioned against discussing physical activeness with patients, as it was significantly associated with poorer body prototype outcomes. The meta-analysis proposed that past discussing concrete activity as an intervention, patients may inadvertently have their attending drawn to their own weight and appearance, equally well equally the associated societal standards for concrete fitness and concrete attractiveness. Further, it was also not reported to exist significantly associated with larger intervention effects on torso image. Until the literature on the underlying machinery between physical activity and body representation is further investigated, concrete activity-related interventions targeting trunk paradigm/representation should therefore be exclusively kept to psychologically healthy populations or be closely embedded in an overall treatment concept.
Notably, objective improvements in actual composition and physical fitness brought about by PI are inconsistently related to changes in body image. This is surprising, insofar every bit people typically assume that their body prototype is based on an objective evaluation and comparison of their body. Instead, it appears that complex appraisal processes, eventually involving perceived improvements in physical capacities or more intense somatosensation experiences during PI may play a more important role. PI interventions could serve to improve body paradigm/torso representation past allowing individuals to redirect their attention more than toward the functionality of their body and less on their appearance, or by increasing their sense of physical efficacy (69, lxx). In this sense, the previous literature supports the need for a comprehensive, multisensory assessment of body representation as suggested past the Longo framework.
Strengths and Methodological Considerations
To our knowledge, this review is the first to provide a comprehensive systematic review on the topic of the longitudinal interactions betwixt PI and body representation—the definition of which we have updated and adapted to fit the more than complex theories and discussions which have arisen over the years.
Methodological limitations of this review arise from our written report selection process as well as fromthe included studies. Every bit we only searched for published results, a publication bias towardsignificant effects cannot exist excluded. Further, as terminology in the field is very heterogeneous,information technology is possible that despite our broad search strategy, a few relevant articles may have been missed.Notably, some of the included studies had small sample sizes and may have been underpowered. Thecurrent systematic review is also potentially limited past biases within studies. Although nosystematic risk of bias across or within studies were identified, 97% of the included studies wereconsidered at chance with regards to selection bias and written report design. More importantly, all studiesare lacking in the variety of validated effect measures. Only cocky-report questionnaires wereimplemented, and the chief component of body image addressed hither was body satisfaction or the lackthereof. Additional visual scales implemented were used to mensurate the disparity betwixt participants' subjective ideal versus actual body shapes, which, in one case once again, merely measured participants' attitudinal/conceptual bug of their ain body prototype. Moreover, the ii studies whose results also reported long-term effects of PI on body image were shown to be in direct contradiction (40, 50). One possible caption for the contrasting results might exist the difference in the type and dosage of the PIs implemented. Every bit such, it remains unclear whether PI-induced body image improvement is indeed sustainable.
Perspectives and Time to come Directions
Our systematic review revealed that evidence on PI equally a means to change torso representation is withal limited. A major claiming for futurity research is not only to reduce option bias in the investigated samples, but as well to explore potential mechanisms of body paradigm improvement via PI through adopting a broader perspective on body representation. Based on our review, nosotros argue for a more comprehensive view that takes various sources of information near the body into account (71, 72). In pursuit of a machinery-oriented intervention, it is imperative to take a solid grasp on the understanding of how torso image/body representation are synthetic and which aspects bulldoze changes in how individuals mentally correspond their body.
The cess of multisensory torso representation is challenging. However, an increasing number of experimental paradigms have been developed in contempo years to assess such concepts as: interoception [eastward.g., (73–75)], implicit knowledge of body dimensions (76–78) and multisensory integration (24). Despite reports of potentially disturbed multisensory integration and interoception in eating disorders (24, 79, 80), these measures accept and so far been largely neglected in clinical research. We look that a broader utilise and further evolution of these methods in body representation assessment could give rising to a more informed understanding of the mechanisms of disturbed torso representation and its malleability.
To this end, it is of import to undertake future inquiry on (i) identifying valid tasks to investigate unlike body representations (e.g., through combining bodily torso measures with tasks assessing body size estimation, interoceptive abilities or affordance estimates with questionnaires assessing cognitive-affective appraisal of the trunk), and (two) investigate the malleability and interactions between different trunk representations.
Writer Contributions
DS, KG, SB, SZ, and AT conceptualized the project. DS, SB, and 50-MW performed the literature review. DS wrote the get-go draft of the manuscript. SB, KG, HW, and AT critically reviewed the manuscript with respect to their areas of expertise: body image and eating disorders (KG, SB, SZ); philosophy and cognitive science of body perception (HW); and sports science (AT).
Funding
This review was supported past a grant from the intramural graduate school "iReAct" of the University and the Academy Hospital Tübingen. We acknowledge support by Open Access Publishing Fund of the University Tübingen.
Disharmonize of Interest
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absenteeism of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential disharmonize of interest.
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Source: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00099/full
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